Original Research

The impact of planned technological change in the public sector: A neuroscientific approach

Nonofo Dithate, Johanna M. Venter

Received: 05 Sept. 2025; Accepted: 30 Sept. 2025; Published: 31 Oct. 2025

Copyright: © 2025. The Author(s). Licensee: AOSIS.
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Abstract

Orientation: Government departments exist to serve the public, and technological change must therefore be managed effectively because of its potential impact on service delivery and citizens’ well-being.

Research purpose: This study explored employees’ experiences of their basic psychological needs, neuroceptive safety, and implicit and explicit memories during planned technological change.

Motivation for the study: Technological change in the public sector has a low success rate. Understanding employees’ basic psychological needs, memory, and neuroceptive safety can enhance insight into their emotional and behavioural responses to change.

Research approach/design and method: A qualitative approach was used. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with nine employees from a South African government department and analysed thematically using Braun and Clarke’s method.

Main findings: Findings highlight employees’ need to satisfy basic psychological needs, experience psychological safety, and draw on implicit and explicit memory during technological transitions. Four themes emerged: (1) psycho-social-spiritual coping strategies, (2) self-directed learning activities, (3) organisational environment and systemic challenges, and (4) emotional experiences of technological change.

Implications for practise: The findings underscore the importance of designing change management processes that address employees’ basic psychological needs during planned technological change, aligning with neuroscience evidence on adaptive responses to change.

Contribution/value-add: The study provides applied neuroscience insights into employees’ basic psychological needs during technological change, guiding the design of evidence-based interventions in the public sector.

Keywords: planned technological change; attachment; control and orientation; pain avoidance; pleasure maximisation; self-esteem; memory systems; autonomic nervous system.

Introduction

Technological change is an inevitable part of organisational growth and adaptation, especially in the era of the Fourth Industrial Revolution and the post-coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) world. The fundamental purpose, vision and mandate of all government organisations, whether at home or abroad, are to serve the people. In serving the people, government organisations have harnessed technological advancements to ensure effective and efficient service delivery to the citizens (Layton-Matthews & Landsberg, 2022), necessitating a collaborative relationship between technology and the end users (employees).

Albrecht et al. (2020) emphasise the importance of an employee-focused perspective when implementing change, as their experiences can significantly impact the success or failure of planned change initiatives. Applied neuroscience provides depth to the understanding of employees’ experiences as it explores the relationships between brain function, behaviour, work performance and intervention strategies aimed at improving organisational outcomes (Waldman et al., 2017). Applied neuroscience thus seeks to enrich Industrial and Organisational psychology theory and practice by considering the brain-body system in improving well-being within the working environment (Geldenhuys, 2020). This research seeks to understand how employees experience technological change in the workplace, particularly when new technology is introduced. It focuses on three key areas: their basic psychological needs, their sense of safety and security in response to change and how they consciously and subconsciously recall and adapt to past experiences of change.

Literature review

The role of the basic psychological needs in technological change

This study utilises the premise of Grawe’s (2007) consistency theoretical model, refined by Rossouw (2014) and applied by Geldenhuys (2020, 2022) in adapting Industrial and Organisational Psychology interventions. The model contends that all human beings share basic psychological needs with specific neurobiological underpinnings, which influence behaviour and overall mental well-being. The extent of violation or endured non-fulfilment of these basic psychological needs alters the coordination and integration of functional neural networks (Geldenhuys, 2020) and subsequently influences behaviour. This model thus emphasises the interrelationship between the environment, neurobiological functioning, social functioning and behavioural adaptation (Rossouw, 2014) via the basic psychological needs. The basic psychological needs conceptualised by Grawe (2007) and refined by Rossouw (2014) are (1) attachment, (2) control and orientation, (3) pleasure maximisation vs. pain avoidance and (4) self-enhancement.

Grawe (2007) introduced the concept of incongruence, which refers to the dynamic interplay between an individual’s expectations regarding basic psychological need fulfilment and their perceived reality of the environment, thereby influencing behaviour and impacting survival and thriving. To distinguish between adaptive and maladaptive neural patterns, Grawe (2007) further categorised incongruence into controllable incongruence and uncontrollable incongruence, resulting in either approach or avoidance motivational goals. The experience of incongruence can exacerbate or mitigate stress and anxiety. The uncertainty and threat related to job responsibilities resulting from technological change may compromise employees’ basic psychological needs and create uncontrollable incongruence.

Firstly, the attachment need is fulfilled through the activation of key brain regions, including the amygdala, which detects social threats and the release of neurotransmitters, such as oxytocin, which facilitates social bonding and attachment, ultimately contributing to overall emotional well-being (Rossouw, 2014). Thus, maintaining social support during technological transition may influence employees’ responses to new technology.

Secondly, the control and orientation need refers to the degree to which individuals feel that they have options that positively align with their goals and the ability to reasonably predict and comprehend the environment. The prefrontal cortex’s involvement in decision-making and goal-directed behaviour contributes towards satisfying the need for control, while the hippocampus plays a crucial role in understanding and navigating one’s environment (Numan, 2015; Yavas et al., 2019).

Thirdly, individuals tend to avoid or gravitate towards situations, people or information depending on the inconsistency between those experiences and their current values, behaviours and beliefs. Approach behaviours are driven by events and objects that have been assigned motivational significance by the dopamine system (Norbury et al., 2015), thus meeting the need for pleasure. If planned technological change is perceived as threatening, it elicits a stress response, which could activate pain avoidance (Grawe, 2007; Rossouw, 2014) and manifest in resistance to change, resulting in poor adoption of the new technology.

Lastly, a healthy expression of the sense of self depends on the development or violation of the attachment, control and pain and pleasure needs, which may lead to self-esteem enhancement and/or protection (Rossouw, 2014). It stands to reason that the acceptance and successful implementation of technological change rely on the fulfilment of employees’ basic psychological needs for attachment, control and orientation, pain avoidance and pleasure maximisation and self-esteem enhancement and protection.

The role of memory systems in technological change

Implicit and explicit memories play a critical role in learning and adaptation during technological change. The history that individuals hold about who they are, where they come from and what sets them apart is directly linked to their identity (Beike et al., 2023; Wilson & Ross, 2003). This may include their career identity, which is shaped, among other factors, by memories of change in their organisation, leaving a permanent mark on their autobiographical, emotional and procedural memories.

Employees rely on their procedural memory (Donahue, 2024) as well as their emotional memory (Tyng et al., 2017) to navigate the unknown. Emotional memory influences their attitudes towards current and future technological change, while procedural memory, being a sensory, non-symbolic and non-verbal form of learning, stores nervous system-based sensations that trigger reactions to certain cues deeply connected to their past experiences with change (Levine, 2022). Repetition enables the replacement of existing procedures with newly learned ones and helps create procedural memory to make using new technology easier and faster (Liu & Yang, 2020).

While learning a new procedure involves the consolidation and reconsolidation of declarative memory, the emotional learning attached to acquiring new technological skills can interfere with long-term memory retention if it triggers a stress response accompanied by an avoidance motivational schema (Farrokhi et al., 2025). However, in these times of excessive reliance on digitisation, the storage, consolidation and transfer of information from working to long-term memory may be poor (Călinescu, 2024; Storm & Soares, 2021), which may impact the ease with which employees learn and adapt to new technology.

Technological change and the autonomic nervous system

Neuroception is the process by which the autonomic nervous system (ANS) reflexively evaluates risk by scanning the environment and body for cues of safety or threat outside conscious awareness (Porges, 2021). The salience network plays a key role in neuroception, functioning as a dynamic switch between the default mode network and the executive network (Menon, 2011). This dynamic switching integrates various memory systems to interpret internal and external stimuli against past experiences and the present context, thereby detecting cues of safety and threat that regulate autonomic mechanisms in response to neuroceptive input (Arden, 2019). Planned technological change, when neurobiologically interpreted as a threat or source of uncertainty, may result in employees first seeking social support. If support is not available or sufficient, the sympathetic nervous system activates, triggering a fight-or-flight response (Porges, 2021). If this coping mechanism also fails, employees may shift into a dorsal vagal state (Porges, 2009, 2021).

The sympathetic state is characterised by increased sensation, emotional reactivity, hypervigilance, intrusive imagery and disorganised cognitive processing, whereas the dorsal vagal state is marked by emotional numbness, withdrawal (Grawe, 2007), helplessness or appeasing behaviours (Porges, 2021). Repeated exposure to similar stimuli reinforces neurobiological responses and behavioural patterns. Thus, repeated negative experiences with technological change may foster avoidance motivational schemas.

Stress and anxiety profoundly affect the brain, which forms part of the nervous system, because of the way they alter brain function (Almarzouki, 2024). Furthermore, when the brain is stressed or remains stressed, it undergoes physical changes and produces a complex overflow of life-altering symptoms (Bryngeirsdottir & Halldorsdottir, 2022; Kira et al., 2023). People’s histories of stressful experiences differ and determine how their nervous systems may react to technological change in the future.

The sympathetic nervous system can be downregulated in response to change if there is adequate coordination between the executive network, default mode network and salience network through the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex–insula–anterior cingulate cortex (dlPFC–insula–ACC) pathway and the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) connection with the ANS (Valenza et al., 2024). The interaction between the ANS and the environment plays an integral role in the integration and coordination of neural network functioning, behaviour, decision-making and adaptability during workplace transitions. This highlights the importance of considering basic psychological needs (Grawe, 2007) to maintain balance within the ANS and functional neural networks, thereby fostering greater adaptability and agility during technological change.

Research methods and design

Research approach

This study followed a social constructivist approach to guide and set clear parameters for the process of inquiry. Social constructivism is a paradigm that emphasises the value of interpersonal communication in learning (Kapur, 2018). Similarly, Gredler (2012) defines social constructivism as a theory that stresses how social interaction contributes to knowledge acquisition and the creation of reality. According to social constructivism, people actively shape their perceptions of the world both through their interactions with others and individually (Saleem et al., 2021). Because of the complex nature of employee responses to change, this paradigm was valuable in interpreting their experiences.

Research strategy

This study followed an exploratory qualitative strategy to understand the impact of planned technological change in the public sector through an applied neuroscience lens. The application of applied neuroscience to change management in the public sector is a relatively new approach to understanding employee behaviour (Petrou & Rammata, 2021). Therefore, this strategy allows for the investigation of new concepts that are either not yet established or are limited in the literature. Furthermore, the strategy enables the researcher to capture subjective data on individuals’ experiences of their basic psychological needs during technological change.

Research method

Research setting: This study was conducted at a government department (learning centres, district offices and the head office) in South Africa. The department serves citizens of South Africa from previously disadvantaged groups (children, black people). It is responsible for school learners from Grade R to Grade 12, including adult literacy. Furthermore, it is tasked with initiatives aimed at discontinuing educational discrimination and inequality, enhancing positive learning environments to reduce poverty and boosting the country’s economic efficiency and productivity.

The provincial office oversees various regional offices, referred to as district offices, which are strategically located according to the size of the district and the number of schools within each district. Currently, there are four districts within the provincial department where the study was conducted. Establishing an education system suited for the 21st century forms part of the department’s mandate. As a result, each district office is responsible for managing circuits situated in remote areas to further deliver on this mandate to learning institutions (schools).

Entrée and establishing researcher roles: The researcher received permission to conduct the study within the organisation from the Head of Department, through the office of the Chief Director: Human Resource Management and Development. Once permission was granted, the Sub-Directorate: Internal Communication distributed the signed letter of approval along with a research call-out poster. Employees who wished to participate contacted the researcher directly.

Research participants and sampling methods: Purposive sampling was employed for the semi-structured interviews, with participants volunteering to take part in the study. Data saturation was reached after nine interviews. The rationale behind purposive sampling is to enhance the study’s rigour and the reliability of the data and findings by more closely aligning the sample with the research goals and objectives (Campbell et al., 2020).

The inclusion criteria were as follows: participants had to (1) use technology, including information systems, to complete their daily duties; and (2) have been employed in the organisation for more than two financial years.

The final sample of participants (n = 9) comprised employees in clerical, administrative, junior management and senior management positions. Data saturation was reached by the eighth participant, and one additional interview was conducted to confirm saturation. The sample consisted of five men and four women. Five participants had been employed in the department for over 10 years, while four had been employed in the organisation for just over 2 years.

Data collection methods: A semi-structured interview with open-ended questions was used. The interview questions were developed based on the three theories identified for the study, namely, the consistency theory of mental functioning, memory systems and polyvagal theory, as lenses through which to explore employees’ experiences of planned technological change. The interviews were conducted at a location of each participant’s choosing, most often in their own offices, which provided a sense of control and comfort, allowing for a more authentic conversation. The interviews were conducted in English but simplified to accommodate participants at the production (clerical) level.

Data recording: The Microsoft Teams application was used to record the audio of each interview and to generate transcriptions. The data were protected using an authenticator application that requires a one-time PIN, as well as encryption.

Strategies employed to ensure data quality and integrity: The research employed several techniques to maintain data quality and integrity, including credibility, transferability, dependability and confirmability. Peer-reviewed interview questions and member checking supported credibility, while confirmability and dependability were upheld through the consistent application of the research procedure, continuous reflexivity, supervision sessions and the maintenance of an audit trail of data collection and analysis. Transferability was addressed by providing a thick description of the research context and sample. To ensure the depth and completeness of the findings, data collection continued until no new themes or insights emerged, demonstrating saturation.

Data analysis: For this study, the researcher followed Braun and Clarke’s (2006) six-step approach to thematic analysis, which ensures an in-depth and systematic analysis of qualitative data. The process began with familiarisation with the data through reading and rereading the transcripts. Next, key aspects across the dataset were systematically identified to generate initial codes. These codes were subsequently organised into themes and sub-themes, which were then reviewed to ensure coherence and alignment with the coding framework. The final themes and sub-themes were named, defined, and the relationships among them were identified. Finally, the analysis was written up, with supporting evidence in the form of participant quotations linked to the literature and research questions.

Reporting style: The findings of the study are reported in terms of themes and sub-themes. Each theme and sub-theme is described and substantiated with quotations from the participants. The participants were assigned numbers (P1–P9) and are cited accordingly for each quotation.

Ethical considerations

Ethical clearance to conduct this study was obtained from the College of Economic and Management Sciences’ Ethical Research Committee Industrial and Organisational Psychology of the University of South Africa. The ethical clearance number is 24222.

Findings

Theme 1: Psycho-social-spiritual coping strategies

There was a general perception among participants that different generations in their organisation showed varying levels of resistance to change, with older employees particularly struggling to adapt. Nonetheless, most participants expressed difficulties in adapting to new systems. Under this theme, patterns were identified across the data that indicated participants’ efforts to explore various approaches, including peer support and information sharing, spiritual coping mechanisms and behavioural coping mechanisms to navigate planned technological change.

Sub-theme 1.1: Peer support and information sharing

Participants relied greatly on the support of their co-workers to build confidence and adapt to new systems. The majority mentioned social coping mechanisms such as teamwork, consultations and informal discussions as vital for ensuring the effective use of new systems. This is reflected in the following comments:

‘From the provincial office, yes, we always work together. Try to understand the system together with the district.’ (P8)

‘I think my personal relationships with my team are good. We can socialize and talk about work and show each other maybe if somebody disagrees with something, we disagree in an amicable way and we find a way to console one another.’ (P5)

‘I start off being anxious, a bit impatient and then I’m forced to consult. And once I have consulted, and I have the support that I need, then the anxiety lessens.’ (P5)

Furthermore, one participant mentioned sharing information both among colleagues and with those outside their department, emphasising the significance of collaboration and mutual support. They explained:

‘When one colleague is well versed in something in some parts of function or in your system we come together, and we share and there are also some forums whereby we share information with other colleagues who are outside of our own department, and we share information and we assist each other.’ (P7)

However, some participants displayed mixed feelings about community or social support during technological transitions, expressing a sense of independence. Others acknowledged peer support but noted that it was limited, while a few expressed near-complete self-reliance, indicating minimal collaboration or support structures in their workplaces:

‘Sometimes. Sometimes we don’t. I’m good. I am perfect. I’m okay, because I can take decisions. I can look for solutions for myself.’ (P6)

Another participant acknowledges the support and collaboration from their peers, but to a limited extent, during the change transition. They state, ‘[…] just limited, certain individuals, some have given up’ (P3). Whereas another participant expressed a sense of self-reliance, mentioning almost a non-existent collaborative or supportive structure among their colleagues, stating that, ‘No, I was on my own. I was on my own. I just had to adapt’ (P9).

Sub-theme 1.2: Spiritual coping mechanism

Participants utilised spirituality to function under pressure during transitions. Spiritual coping mechanisms included practices such as meditation and prayer:

‘I pray […] I leave them at my place and say, “Oh Jesus, you’re the one who’s going to remain with this, I’m going to work, just work with me.”’ (P3)

‘I move. I switch off the system. Go back to the car, meditate, come back a different person.’ (P3)

Sub-theme 1.3: Behavioural coping mechanism

Participants also reported behavioural coping strategies, consisting of both adaptive and maladaptive behaviours. Adaptive responses included taking breaks or calming oneself, while maladaptive responses included substance use to manage anxiety during transitions:

‘I always take a break and I tell myself to calm down, I check my phone and then I have a snack. It depends really.’ (P2)

‘I drink energy drinks and feel like anybody else, you know, just to deal with their anxiety.’ (P5)

‘After a long day I go out I won’t lie to you, I go out I have a drink or two. And I de-stress just to get whatever anxiety that I had out.’ (P5)

‘And even I smoked that time. Cigarettes.’ (P4)

Theme 2: Self-directed learning activities

Participants employed various self-directed learning activities to adapt to new technology, highlighting the distinct personal learning styles of different individuals. These activities included note-taking, repetition, experiential and exploratory learning, informal digital learning, and self-paced learning. These approaches proved instrumental in navigating technological changes.

Sub-theme 2.1: Note-taking and repetition to reinforce learning

Participants emphasised documenting new processes for future reference, with note-taking serving as a valuable tool when challenges arose. In addition, repetition was highlighted as a preferred method to reinforce learning:

‘Obviously, we take notes cause it’s a new system different from what we have, from the manual system that we had before.’ (P8)

‘And then you can always go back and ask. And then make your own notes.’ (P2)

‘So, once you can, once you did one you will learn very fast, but I remember we had our notes […]’ (P4)

‘I would do the tasks over and over practicing. Every now and then. I would calculate at least for the day, how many files did I do? What did I understand?’ (P5)

Sub-theme 2.2: Experiential and exploratory learning

Some participants preferred experiential and exploratory approaches to learning new technology, noting that hands-on experience built confidence and efficiency in task execution:

‘When you do it on the job you have that ah-ha moment, it’s very exciting. When you put something in your head it’s different when it’s on the job, it’s better than the manual.’ (P2)

‘So, the best way I can do it is in my free time to play around with the system. Just to get the gist of how the system works and orient it myself. So that’s how I would normally deal with something new would just play around with it and start to integrate my work.’ (P5)

Sub-theme 2.3: Informal digital learning

Participants reported supplementing their workplace learning with informal digital learning, particularly through platforms such as YouTube:

‘Because technology is easy you can use YouTube to learn how the new program works. How you link them and so on, so for me it was easy for me to transition.’ (P1)

Sub-theme 2.4: Self-paced learning

Several participants valued revisiting the technology in their own spaces and at their own pace. While some admitted to needing more time to grasp new systems, having access to laptops at home facilitated this process:

‘I think for me, I need time. I might not be technologically challenged, but it takes time for me to grasp something.’ (P5)

‘Oh yes, the system was installed on our laptops. Instead, we are using laptops now from desktops and then yes, we could take the laptops home in case you want to remind yourself of some of the things or processes.’ (P8)

Theme 3: Organisational environment and systemic challenges

This theme encapsulates challenges encountered by participants that were both environmental and systemic. These included inadequate support in training and leadership, a lack of structured change management and ineffective wellness programmes during transitions.

Sub-theme 3.1: Inadequate training support

Participants reported a lack of sufficient training and resources during technological changes. Training gaps left critical information unaddressed:

‘The organisation doesn’t offer much of support, it basically leaves us to fend for ourselves and to learn or research on our own. Courses are not really like readily available.’ (P7)

‘They don’t really take the schools to training. So yeah. It is a challenge, yeah.’ (P8)

‘[…] there were some problems because not everything is covered in a training session.’ (P4)

‘But now the challenge would be, the training would be on how to use the system […] if you didn’t study IT [Information Technology], you cannot troubleshoot.’ (P1)

Another challenge is that there seemed to be no structured development to facilitate personal growth as one participant commented, ‘[T]here was no training and actually no one cared if I needed training’ (P9) and continued to state that, ‘It seems like the department has no clue when it comes to developing their employees, especially when there’s something new in their department’ (P9).

Some also noted that inadequate guidance and resources complicated work processes, particularly during time-sensitive tasks:

‘Now the difficult part comes on when overtime claims arrive in our office. We are supposed to pay, but there’s no time – minimum time. It becomes difficult to say, “Can you kindly teach me or show me how to load so that I can pay?” – and then the person is not here.’ (P3)

‘The department could only provide us with cell phones for now, but the system does need a tablet or an iPad.’ (P5)

Sub-theme 3.2: Lack of structured change management

Concerns were raised regarding inconsistent system upgrades, poor documentation and unplanned implementation processes:

‘The upgrades of the system will not come as scheduled and they would not come with a manual.’ (P8)

‘So, I’m not happy with how the change happens within the public service because it’s not planned for.’ (P9)

While participants acknowledged the existence of a dedicated change management unit, they felt it had not yet been fully implemented:

‘It has not been fully implemented because change has recently been established with the department not more than five years now.’ (P7)

‘When I knew there’s something about change was when Person A was appointed. So, it’s rather new in the department.’ (P4)

Furthermore, past unfulfilled promises of new systems also contributed to scepticism about future initiatives:

‘[T]here were so many times that they said we going to have this system or are we going to have a new financial system […] And it never happened.’ (P4)

Finally, concerns were raised regarding the readiness of the system and the need for further workshops ‘Not yet, because the system still needs – it still needs to be workshopped’ (P5).

Sub-theme 3.3: Unsupportive leadership

Participants perceived their leaders as unresponsive to employee anxieties and resistance to change. They noted a lack of managerial support and limited access to necessary resources during transitions, which contributed to frustration and self-reliance:

‘They don’t care about us, because remember, for example, we went to the OD [organisational development], we said OK, things have changed. Think about us. They said as long as, you stick to what you do, what is written on your job profile.’ (P1)

‘I think the department does not care. That’s how I feel the department is not managing that aspect very well. In fact, I cannot even look at any function that has been put in place to mitigate against anxiety and all these things, yeah.’ (P5)

‘The organisation might not or may not fully understand the subject of change of change management or it has not been fully implemented.’ (P7)

‘The senior managers would be like what is it that you will be staying there for? For the whole week?’ (P8)

‘So that’s the disadvantage because you have to do it on your own.’ (P1)

Sub-theme 3.4: Ineffective wellness programmes

Wellness initiatives intended to support employees during transitions were seen as inadequate and generic. While participants were aware of wellness structures within the organisation, they reported scepticism about their effectiveness, noting that activities did not meet employees’ actual needs. The consensus is that programmes are not targeted to ensure the necessary support during transitions, as:

‘they are depressed and stuff like that, but no one is doing anything about it’ (P9).

‘Our EAP Works on calendar. There’s nothing there for you as an individual or an open discussion or channel where it’s being said If you need help you can come.’ (P2)

‘Not really but there is a wellness component whereby they are responsible to deal with such. For an example when there is a change in the structure, and people should be matched and placed. Those that are not comfortable with that change are usually taken to the component of Wellness whereby they will be assessed, you know, they might be assisted by professionals who are well versed in that space.’ (P7)

‘Their activities, they are not catering for what is it that we need, I think that’s the challenge.’ (P9)

‘Well, other than the health Wellness which I attended the other day. I wouldn’t know if I needed to go for counselling where do I go, you know.’ (P5)

‘I know we have EAP, but I’m not, I don’t know what they are doing. I don’t know if there’s anything else.’ (P4)

Theme 4: Emotional experiences of technological change

This theme highlights participants’ emotional responses to technological change, including perceptions of limited psychological safety, anxiety, disengagement, helplessness, positive experiences of technological change, and the influence of past memories on current experiences.

Sub-theme 4.1: Perceived psychological safety

Several participants reported feeling unsafe or ignored when voicing concerns or suggestions during transitions. Negative experiences of being dismissed or undervalued contributed to feelings of disenfranchisement and reduced motivation. While some participants expressed mixed feelings, others maintained that they still felt safe to share ideas, even if these were not always received positively.

Participants admitted to feeling as if they were ‘… walking on thin ice’ (P3) when expressing concerns and ideas during a transition. The following quotations illustrate participants’ discomfort with speaking up:

‘Sometimes I don’t feel safe. I think it depends on the kind of person that you will be sharing the idea with at the time, and how they take it.’ (P6)

‘So basically, you would be bringing ideas, suggestions, and they just get ignored. So, I don’t know whether that is a negative consequence, but it affects how I function because where I would be hoping to speak out and bring ideas, I tend to now take a step back and not add any value anymore.’ (P5)

‘So just the thought of saying it and knowing what you know what happens? Well, you feel disenfranchised. You don’t feel like you belong, you don’t feel like you are off any value. So that’s how, at times we even feel incompetent.’ (P5)

‘It’s like they would say, “Woo, it’s this person again talking. I’m not going to listen to that person. Only if it was someone else, then I would answer.” And things like these take your spirit down.’ (P6)

Similarly, another participant articulated mixed feelings when sharing concerns or ideas; they commented: ‘Sometimes I feel safe, sometimes I don’t feel safe’ (P3). However, one participant mentioned that despite facing resistance, they still felt safe to share ideas, highlighting that, ‘I do share my ideas, whether it’s received well or not, but for as long as I am doing the correct thing’ (P2). A participant highlighted the impact of supervisors resisting change, noting its influence on employee motivation, saying, ‘[W]e will be looking at people who would never want to change because it’s like you taking their job. It’s like you telling them because these are the people of high seniority and you’re a clerk’ (P3).

Sub-theme 4.2: Anxiety, disengagement and helplessness

Participants described heightened stress responses, disengagement and feelings of helplessness. Some participants reported withdrawing completely or experiencing sleep difficulties because of uncertainty:

‘They were not helping me, so I ended up folding my hands and not doing anything so […]’ (P9)

‘I can’t sleep because now I need to know what is it that I should do, which function should I use and how should I cope?’ (P9)

‘I become more anxious when I don’t have that support, because that has always been a pattern. At least the person above me, whether it’s a supervisor, somebody who’s got more experience, you know, you would need that sense of that sense of confidence. Once I don’t have that, then that’s when I have anxiety.’ (P5)

‘So, if they say that, emotionally, they are draining us because I’m going to perform duties whereby, they are not meant for me. Because technology changed, but they’re still expecting me to perform those duties, like disregarding the work that I do.’ (P1)

Similarly, another participant mentioned that they, ‘[S]witch off completely’ (P5) when stressed, affecting their productivity. A common source of anxiety was the fear of redundancy because of new technology. The following is a participant’s response, providing evidence of this fear:

‘It makes me really redundant. And when it’s like that, sometimes you get depressed, like where am I going? What am I going to do? Why am I waking up?’ (P1)

Sub-theme 4.3: Positive experiences of technological change

Despite the challenges, participants acknowledged the benefits of new technologies, such as improved efficiency, faster processes, more reliable systems and reduced reliance on physical resources. One participant mentioned that:

‘[Y]ou would sit and capture a form of so many pages. It really killed our back, our shoulders […] but so that change made things a little easier’ (P8).

‘I think more than anything the system has aided towards moving away from print outs So when it comes to resource management, it has made things easier and not dependent on whatever resources that we have.’ (P5)

‘[…] in the older of the version of the system We had grey areas, the new system dealt away with the grey areas which led to us not forming conclusion based on the grey areas, but conclusions based on the actual score of the post.’ (P7)

‘The impact was that the results or the system was much faster, and it was it was much more reliable, and even the results were better, or they were consistent.’ (P5)

‘[…] moving from manual capturing to electronic uploads of the data. I felt so grateful … ’ (P8)

Sub-theme 4.4: Influences of memories on change

Several participants indicated that past experiences with technological advancements shaped positive attitudes towards future change. They expressed openness, hope and a willingness to accept and adapt to new systems:

‘I think I’m always positive towards technological advances that are going to improve the workspace. And I will always be encouraged to have those technological advances.’ (P5)

‘I’m just going to focus forward. Whatever changes there are, I’m going to accept them.’ (P6)

‘With anything to do with data, I will always choose technology … even in the future, I’ll always choose it.’ (P8)

‘I think that past experiences and the present experience that we’ve just had, it gives me hope that the past experiences should not be something that holds you back because there is always a chance for improvement.’ (P7)

Discussion

The findings reveal that participants’ experiences were shaped by the fulfilment of their basic psychological needs, their perceived safety in the workplace and their memories, both internal and external, of past technological initiatives. Emerging critical factors included coping mechanisms, learning strategies, environmental and systemic challenges and neuroceptive responses, which were identified as key themes across the data.

Participants highlighted coping strategies such as peer support, information sharing, and spiritual and behavioural mechanisms as essential for navigating the anxieties associated with technological change. Peer support and information sharing fostered a sense of community and shared purpose, aligning with Grawe’s (2007) assertion that the fulfilment of basic psychological needs is fundamental to individual thriving in a given environment. This demonstrates that employees feel more empowered to face challenges or uncertainty when they are part of a group that shares similar struggles. Similarly, Porges’ polyvagal theory suggests that the safety derived from social connections enables individuals to engage more openly with their surroundings, emphasising the impact of supportive, nurturing and empathetic relationships on positive emotional and psychological regulation (Mertika et al., 2020).

Positive spiritual coping appeared to create an internalised sense of control and orientation, facilitating coping flexibility. Some employees connected to a deeper sense of self through meditation, which helped them find comfort, calmness and emotional regulation during times of uncertainty. Meditation and mindfulness integrate neural networks, facilitating greater mental agility and adaptability (Bremer et al., 2022).

Participants reported experiencing initial anxiety and stress during technological change, with negative emotions resulting from uncontrollable incongruence (Grawe, 2007; Rossouw, 2014) impacting their overall productivity. In some cases, uncontrollable incongruence during technological change led to behaviours such as the use of substances, including coffee, energy drinks, cigarettes and alcohol, as coping mechanisms. Firstly, this reaction reflects the nervous system’s response to perceived threats in the environment. Secondly, it demonstrates that uncertainty may drive individuals towards destructive behaviours to meet the basic psychological need for pain avoidance, either as a distraction from current challenges or as a form of temporary relief. The pain-avoidance schema activated by the fear of uncertainty may impede the development of flexible coping skills (Brown et al., 2023).

The brain’s ability to learn effectively depends on the investment of time, effort and attention, which engage the executive network and facilitate neural processing and consolidation (Arden, 2019). Participants relied on various learning methods to store and retrieve information necessary for performing tasks with new technology, emphasising the role of procedural memory in adaptation.

Memory systems also influenced attitudes towards technological change, shaping engagement based on previous organisational and managerial approaches (Saghafian et al., 2021). This suggests that it may not be the technology itself that triggers the stress response, but rather the way in which change is managed. Positive or negative past experiences significantly determined whether participants embraced or resisted the change. Despite encountering organisational and systemic challenges during transitions, participants generally maintained a hopeful outlook toward future technological advancements. This optimism may be linked to the extent to which their basic psychological need for attachment was fulfilled among their peers (Grawe, 2007), keeping them in a ventral vagal state (Porges, 2021) that facilitated openness and engagement despite negative past experiences of change management. Furthermore, as the dopamine system assigns motivational significance to objects (Klein et al., 2019), such as technology, employees were more likely to remain receptive to technology that had previously proven effective, because of the associated positive reinforcement and increased productivity.

Participants’ perceptions of organisational support significantly influenced their morale, motivation to learn new skills, sense of belonging and feelings of competence (Satardien et al., 2019; Tamimi et al., 2023). Likewise, the role of managers and supervisors in engaging and motivating employees was critical in shaping their experiences (Tamimi et al., 2023). Findings indicated that a perceived lack of leadership support and inadequate training neglected employees’ basic psychological needs for attachment and control and orientation. This created uncontrollable incongruence (Grawe, 2007), heightening insecurities and activating either the sympathetic state or the dorsal vagal state in participants (Porges, 2021). Some employees disengaged from new technology, reporting feelings of frustration and incompetence because of misalignment between their existing knowledge and new technological demands, thereby undermining their basic psychological need for self-esteem.

This perception highlights employees’ need to trust that their leaders can guide them through changes and adequately prepare them to perform new tasks. Additionally, the avoidance behaviours reported by participants, stemming from a lack of relevant skills, highlighted the unmet need for control and orientation, which led to self-protection strategies (Grawe, 2007). Participants also reported that organisational programmes dedicated to change management and employee wellness were ineffective during transitions, further contributing to the neglect of their needs for control, orientation and attachment. Conversely, providing employees with relevant information, whether positive or negative, contributed to their sense of orientation during transition. Ensuring adequate training and development both before and during technological implementation would fulfil the needs for control and orientation and self-esteem enhancement (Grawe, 2007).

Management style played a crucial role in shaping employee experiences. Providing space for employees to share their thoughts and innovative ideas fostered a sense of belonging, meeting the need for attachment. By offering opportunities for input, organisations helped fulfil employees’ need for control, ultimately reducing resistance and increasing adaptability (Ullrich et al., 2023). However, the findings suggest that participants’ needs for control and orientation, and self-esteem were violated, as they felt disenfranchised and incompetent during transitions, lacking the safety to express concerns. Their expressed anxiety and lack of safety when raising concerns about technological change illustrate polyvagal theory’s assertion that the ANS continuously assesses signs of safety and danger (Porges, 2021).

Moreover, the perception of unsupportive or dismissive behaviour from management exacerbated this physiological stress response, with participants admitting to withholding their input out of fear of being ignored, put down or dismissed. This demonstrated a dorsal vagal state of disengagement (Porges, 2021). However, some participants expressed their ideas despite knowing they might face resistance. Notably, these participants also engaged in meditation and mindfulness practices as coping strategies, which integrate and coordinate the executive, default mode and salience networks (Bremer et al., 2022). Such integration provides greater resilience against stress and regulates autonomic mechanisms that support approach behaviours during adversity (Arden, 2019). This reflects the complex interplay between neurological processes, where individuals in a sympathetic ‘fight’ response can regain control and assert their values (Stanojlović et al., 2021). Furthermore, the decision to speak up reflects the function of the prefrontal cortex, which involves risk evaluation and the modulation of fear and social anxiety.

Implications

The findings of the study imply that basic psychological needs serve as key drivers of the successful implementation of technological change. Meeting these needs creates an internal consistency that enables the brain–body complex to navigate challenges and master new skills during planned technological change. The needs for control and orientation, as well as attachment, were most prominent in the findings, suggesting that these two needs facilitate a sense of neuroceptive safety during technological change.

Limitations

The participants were drawn from a single provincial government department, and their experiences may differ from those in other provinces. It is therefore recommended that future research replicate similar studies in other government departments.

Conclusion

The study empirically explored employees’ experiences to provide a deeper understanding, interpreting them through the lens of applied neuroscience. The findings illustrated the importance of meeting the basic psychological need for control and orientation before, during and after the implementation of technological change.

Employees’ primary needs regarding control and orientation are related to receiving relevant and sufficient training that aligns technical skills with new technological requirements. The development of flexible coping skills would further assist in regulating the ANS during the uncertainty that often accompanies technological change. Furthermore, the findings indicate that meeting the need for attachment (through technical peer support systems and authentic, safe consultation with management regarding concerns about technological change) would downregulate the stress response and have a stabilising effect on the ANS.

The findings also illustrated, in line with the literature, that basic psychological needs function as a system. For example, meeting the need for attachment often provides a sense of orientation, which cumulatively reduces pain and enhances self-esteem. Thus, fulfilling basic psychological needs facilitates an upward spiral in neural and autonomic regulation, fostering greater adaptability and adoption of new technology.

Acknowledgements

This article is partially based on N. Dithate’s dissertation entitled ‘Planned technological change in the public sector: An applied neuroscience perspective’ towards the degree of MCom in Industrial and Organisational Psychology at the University of South Africa on 15 October 2025. The thesis was supervised by J.M. Venter and currently not publicly available.

The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article. The author, J.MV., serves as an editorial board member of this journal. The peer review process for this submission was handled independently, and the author had no involvement in the editorial decision-making process for this manuscript. The authors have no other competing interests to declare.

N.D. was responsible for the conceptualisation, execution and writing of the first draft. J.M.V. acted as supervisor, reviewed and edited the final draft of the manuscript.

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

Derived data supporting the findings of this study are available from the Ethics Research Committee upon reasonable request from the corresponding author, J.M.V.

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and are the product of professional research. It does not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated institution, funder, agency or that of the publisher. The authors are responsible for this article’s results, findings and content.

References